Classification Of Marketing Research Designs

Classification Of Marketing Research Designs A research design is a model or blueprint for concluding the marketing research project. It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to structure or solve marketing research problems. Although a broad approach to the problem has already been developed, the research specifies the details- the nuts and bolts- of implementing the approach. A research design lays the foundation for conducting the project. A good research design will ensure that the marketing research project is conducted effectively and efficiently. Classification of Marketing Research Designs Research Design Conclusive Research Design Exploratory Research Design Descriptive Research Casual Research Cross-sectional Design Longitudinal Design Single Cross sectional Design Multiple Cross Sectional Design Exploratory Research: It is a type of research design whose primary objective is the provision of insights into and comprehension of the problem situation confronting the researcher. Conclusive Research: Research designed to assist the decision maker in determining, evaluating and selecting the best course of action to take in a given situation. Cross-sectional Design: A type of research design involving the collection of information from any given sample of population elements only once. Single cross-sectional design: A cross-sectional design in which one sample of respondents is drawn from the target population and information is obtained from this sample once. Multiple cross-sectional designs: A cross-sectional design in which there are two or more samples of respondents and information from each sample is obtained only once. Longitudinal designs: A type of research design involving a fixed sample of population elements that is measured repeatedly on the same variables. The sample remains the same over time, thus providing a series of pictures which, when viewed together, portray a vivid illustration of the situation and the changes that are taking place over time. Panel: A sample of respondents who have agreed to provide information at specified intervals over an extended period No Is the need for marketing research justified? Yes Define the research objectives Identify data needs No Are suitable data resources available? Identify data sources Yes No Are some secondary resources capable of providing all data needed Yes Choose appropriate design and data collection method Obtain the secondary data Design research instrument Identify the sample Collect data including any relevant secondary data Analyze and interpret data Terminate project Present research findings. Step 1: Justify the Need for Marketing Research A logical starting point for discussing the marketing research process is the issue of whether to conduct a proposed research project. Four considerations influence the decision: the potential usefulness of the research results: managements attitudes toward the research: the resources available for implementing the research results: and the costs of the research projects versus the benefits. Step 2: Define the Research Objective Questions about what we want to find out and why are crucial to the effectiveness of any project. Indeed, our discussion of whether or not of research project is worthwhile assumed that the research purpose was well defined. We cannot meaningfully evaluate the costs and potential benefits of research unless we have clearly established the answers to what and why. Step 3: Identify Data Needs Identifying specific data needs means scrutinizing the research purpose and listing the kinds of data required to accomplish that purpose. Step 4: Identify Data Sources After identifying data needs, the next logical step is to locate sources capable of providing the data. The relative ease or difficulty of locating data sources will depend on the nature of the information desired. Secondary Data are data that have already been collected by and are readily available from other sources. Primary data are data collected for specific research needs. The importance of time frame. If no resource is available for the kinds of data needed in a particular project within the time frame, the company should abandon the research project at this stage rather than pursue it further: the results will undoubtedly worth it. Step 5: Choose an Appropriate Research Design and Data Collection Method After determining the research objectives and the nature of the data to be collected, the researchers must choose an appropriate research design, which in turn will influence what tasks they will perform in the remainder of the project. The research design may be exploratory or conclusive. Exploratory Research helps researchers gain some initial insights and may pave the way for future research. For instance, an industrial product firm wishing to generate some ideas for improving its product line can do so through informal discussions with selected customers and distributors. Conclusive Research helps researchers verify insights and select the appropriate course of action. Conclusive research can be either descriptive or experimental. A research proposal is a document that briefly describes the purpose and scope, specific objectives, sample designs, data collection procedures, data analysis plan, timetable and estimated cost for the contemplated project. Step 6: Design the Research Instrument The step of developing the data collection instrument or formed is relevant when a research project requires primary data collection. Although designing a data collection form may appear easy, certain aspects of the form, if not handled carefully, can seriously affect the quality and nature of the data. Step 7: Identify the Sample Designing a sample to collect primary data means clearly specifying who, or which units, should provide the needed data. This step may offer some general guidance for designing the sample. The method of choosing individuals depends on whether a profitable or non profitable sampling method is used. In a Profitable Sample, each component in a population has a known, non-zero chance of inclusion. Non Profitable Sampling is a subjective procedure in which the probability of selection for each population unit is known beforehand. Step 8: Collect the Data Once the data collection form and sample research are ready the next step is to collect the data. Before data analysis can begin, the responses generated by the data collection procedures must be checked for completeness, consistency and adherence to pre specified instructions. The process of examining the responses and taking the necessary corrective action to ensure they are of high quality is called editing. The edited responses also need to be put into a form that is ready for analysis. This transformation is called coding. Step 9: Analyze and Interpret the Data Analysis and interpretation are integral parts of marketing research. The types of analysis permissible in a project depend on the nature of the data, which in turn can be affected by factors such as the type of data collection used. Step 10: Present Research findings The last step in the marketing research process is to prepare a report that communicates the result of the research to decision makers. This step is critical to the process. Only through a clear and convincing report can the findings and conclusions reached by the market researcher be implemented. Marketing Research for the BK Broiler Chicken Sandwich Step 1: Justify the need for Marketing Research In 1998 the BK Broiler chicken sandwich was suffering from low sales. BK needed research to identify and develop a winning positioning strategy that would appeal to women. In short, the proposed research project appeared to be worthwhile not only because the results were needed, but also because adequate resources were available to implement the research results. Step 2: Define the Research Objective The main objective of the research project was to find out what would be the best way to position a new broiled chicken sandwich among the target market. The proposed sandwich was smaller than the current one, had fewer fat grams and used whole muscle product as opposed to the existing formed-chicken patty. The sandwich was made with a corn-dusted bun, used Savory Grill sauce, and was topped with shredded vegetables. Thus the primary purpose was to obtain consumer reactions to four different ways to position the new chicken sandwich in the marketplace. The four positioning considered for the concept/taste test were: Choice White Meat/Chicken Breast Backyard BBQ Taste Marinated Special Blend/Home style Taste Competitive Claim (concept only) Step 3 and 4: Identify Data Needs and Data Sources BKs data requirements fell into four classes: Purchase Intention Measures-The purchase intention measure was to be used to assess the likelihood that respondents would buy the sandwich. Overall Product Diagnostics-BK wanted to obtain data to understand the reasons underlying the intended purchase measures. Of interest to BKs product management were consumers overall judgements of the product concept, measuring uniqueness or differentiation from other products, inherent interest, and value for the money. Attribute Diagnostics-To focus further positioning and development efforts. BK needed data about specific product attributes that led people to buy chicken sandwiches. Respondent Profiling Variables-Data on demographics were deemed important to understanding customers fast-food eating habits. Step 5: Choose an Appropriate Research Design BK hired an outside research agency to design and execute the marketing research study. The project was basically conclusive experimental research. BK and the research agency were clear about the types of information they wanted. Step 6: Design the Research Instrument or Form- The agency developed a well structured questionnaire to collect the necessary data about the concept and the respondents. It consisted the following: Pre-recruiting screening questions Concept evaluation questions (only for qualified respondents) Taste test (only for those who gave neutral or positive responses to the concept) Classification questions Step 7: Identify the Sample The sample for this study was identified earlier as a group who had eaten chicken in a fast-food restaurant at least once in the past 3 months. The sample consisted of the following: Approximately 65% female and 35% male(skewed toward women to reflect the expected user base for the new broiled chicken sandwich) Approximately 50% ages 18 to 34 and 50% ages 35 to 54 Approximately 50% BK users and 50% non-BK users(within the past 4 weeks) Step 8: Collect the Data A total of 835 interviews were conducted among pre-recruited consumers at malls in 10 different geographic locations. Approximately 150 taste tests were conducted for the first three positioning. Step 9: Analyze and Interpret the Data The study found that interest in trying the product was driven by a positive pre-disposition toward the chicken sandwich, as well as how appetizing the product looked (in the picture).In the Taste Test Study, consumers rated the product very favorably. Step 10: Present Research Findings to Decision Makers Based on these findings, BKs Consumer Research Group recommended the Choice White Meat/Chicken Breast positioning. The sandwich performed well among women (the intended target market) and among non-BK users and the 35 to 54 age group rated the sandwich very favorably. However, the researchers also suggested that additional studies were needed to determine the best name and price for the sandwich. Purchase intent for BK Broiler Chicken Sandwich choice White Meat/ Chicken Breast Positioning Among Key Subgroups Choice White Meat/Chicken Breast positioning generated the highest level of definitely would buy/ probably would buy purchase intent scores. Of the total 208 respondents who were exposed to the Choice White Meat positioning, 43% rated it as definitely would buy and 83% rated it as definitely or probably would buy. To measure purchase intention, the respondents were asked: How likely would you be to buy this product if it were available at Burger King? Definitely would buy 5 Probably would buy 4 Might or might not buy 3 Probably would not buy 2 Definitely would not buy 1 TYPES OF RESEARCH DATA PRIMARY VERSUS SECONDARY DATA Primary data are originated by at researcher for the purpose of addressing the problem at hand. The collection of primary data involves all six steps of the marketing research process. Obtaining primary data can be expensive and time consuming. Secondary data are data that have already been collected for purposes other than the problem at hand. These data can be located quickly and inexpensively. A comparison of primary and secondary data Primary Data Secondary Data Collection Purpose For the problem at hand For other problems Collection Process Very involved Rapid and easy Collection Cost High Relatively low Collection Time Long Short ADVANTAGES AND USES OF SECONDARY DATA Identify the problem. Better define the problem. Develop an approach to the problem. Formulate an appropriate research design. Answer certain research questions and test some hypothesis. Interpret primary data more insightfully. The general rule that is followed is: Examination of available secondary data is a prerequisite to the collection of primary data. Start with secondary data. Proceed to primary data only when the secondary data resources have been exhausted or yield marginal returns. DISADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA The objectives, nature, and methods used to collect the secondary data may not be appropriate to the present situation. It may be lacking in accuracy. It may not be completely correct or dependable. Before using secondary data, it is important to evaluate them on the above mentioned factors. Classification of Secondary Data Ready to Use Syndicated Services Computerized Databases Requires further Processing Published Materials External Internal Secondary data Internal Data are those generated within the organization which conducts the research. This information may be available in a ready-to use format, such as information routinely supplied by the management decision support system. For example: Extensive analysis was conducted on internal secondary data in the department store patronage project. This provided several rich insights. For example, sales were analyzed. To obtain: Sales by product line. Sales by major department. Sales by specific stores. Sales by geographical region. Sales by cash versus credit purchases. Sales in specific time periods. Sales by size of purchase. Sales trends in many of these classifications. External Data are those generated by sources outside the organization. These data are present in the form of published material, databases or information that are available by syndicate services. Before collecting external secondary data, it is useful to analyze internal secondary data. Database Marketing involves the usage of computers to attract and identify customer and purchase details. This secondary information serves as the foundation for marketing programs or as an internal source of information related to customer behavior. For many companies, the first step in creating a database is to transfer raw sales information. Published Secondary Data Published Secondary Data General Business Sources Government Sources Indexes Directories Census Data Other Government Publications Statistical Data Guides General Business Data Businesses publish a lot of information in the form of books, periodicals, journals, magazines, news papers and trade literature. This information can be located by using guides, directories and indexes. Sources are also available for identifying statistical data. Guides Guides are an excellent source of standard or recurring information. A guide may help identify other major sources of directories trade associations and trade publications. Guides are one of the first sources a researcher should consult. Some of the most useful are the American Marketing Association Bibliography Series, Business Information Sources, Data Sources for Business and Market Analysis, and Encyclopedia of Business Information Sources. Directories Directories are helpful for identifying individuals or organizations that collect specific data. Some of the important directories include Directories in Print, Consultants and Consulting Organizations Directory, Encyclopedia of Associations, Studies and Surveys, and Research Services Directory. Indexes It is possible to locate information on a particular topic in several different publications using an index. Indexes can, therefore, increase the efficiency of the search process. Other Government Publications In addition to the census, the federal government collects and publishes a great deal of statistical data. The more useful publications are Business Conditions Digest Business Statistics, Index to Publications, Statistical Abstract of the United States, and Survey of Current Business. Classification of Computerized Databases Computerized Databases Bibliographic Databases Numeric Databases Full-text Databases Special-Purpose Databases Directory Databases Internet Offline Online Online database consist of a central data bank, which is accessed with a computer via a telecommunications network. Internet Databases can be accessed, located, and analysed on the internet. The data can be downloaded from the internet and stored in a computer or an auxiliary storage device. Offline databases make the information available on diskettes and CD-ROM disks. Thus, offline databases can be accessed at the users location without the use of an external telecommunications network. Sources of International Secondary Data International Secondary Data International Organizations Domestic Organizations in the U.S. Organizations in Foreign Countries International Organizations in the U.S, Government Sources Non Government Sources Governments Trade Associations A wide variety of secondary data are available for international marketing research. As in the case of domestic research, the problem is not one of lack of data but of the plethora of information available, and it is useful to classify the various sources as shown in the diagram above. Domestic organizations in the United States, both government and non-governmental source, can provide valuable secondary international data. The important government sources are The Department of Commerce, The Agency for International Development, The Small Business Administration, the Export-Import Bank of the United States, The Department of Agriculture Department of State, Department of Labor, and The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. The Department of Commerce offers not only a number of publications, but also a variety of services as illustrated in the above diagram. Classification of Marketing Research Data Marketing Research Data Secondary Data Primary Data Quantitative Data Qualitative Data Descriptive Survey Data Experimental Data Observational and Other Data Casual Qualitative Research provide a clear perception of a situation and understanding of the problem setting using unstructured, exploratory research methodologies based on little samples. Quantitative Research is a research methodology that looks out to quantify a particular data and apply some of statically analysis. Quantitative versus Qualitative Research Qualitative Research Quantitative Research Objective To gain a qualitative objective of the underlying reasons and motivations. To quantify the data and generalize the results from the sample to the population of interest. Sample Small number of no representative cases. Large number of representative cases. Data Collection Unstructured Structured Data Analysis Non statistical Statistical Outcome Develop an initial understanding Recommend a final course of action. Classification of Qualitative Research Procedures Qualitative Research Procedures Indirect (Disguised) Direct (No disguised) Projective Techniques Depth Interviews Focus Groups Association Techniques Expressive Techniques Completion Techniques Construction Techniques Direct Approach A type of research in which the purposes of the project are made known to the respondent or are obvious, given the nature of the interview Indirect Approach A type of research in which the main purposes of the project are masked from the respondents Focus Group Interview An interview conducted by a well trained moderator in a nonstructural and natural manner with a very little group of respondents. The moderators lead the discussion. The main purpose of focus groups is to gain insights by listening to a group of people from the appropriate target market talk about issues of interest to the researcher. Characteristics Group Size 8 to 12 Group Composition Homogeneous; respondents prescreened Physical setting Relaxed, informal atmosphere Time duration 1 to 3 hours Recording Use of audiocassettes and videotapes Moderator Observational, interpersonal, and communication skills of the moderator. Depth Interviews An unstructured, straight forward, personal interview in which a single respondent is probed by a highly trained interviewer to uncover fundamental motivations, beliefs, attitudes, and feelings on a topic Focus Groups versus Depth Interviews Characteristic Focus Groups Depth Interviews Group synergy and dynamics + Peer pressure/group influence + Client involvement + Generation of innovative ideas + In-depth probing of individuals + Uncovering hidden motives + Discussion of sensitive topics + Interviewing respondents who are competitors + Interviewing respondents who are professionals + Scheduling of respondents + Amount of information + Bias in moderation and interpretation + Cost per respondent + Projective Techniques An unstructured and indirect form of questioning encourages the respondents to project their fundamental motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings regarding the issues of concern. Advantages and Disadvantages of Projective Techniques Projective techniques have a major advantage over the unstructured direct techniques. They may elicit responses that subjects would be unwilling or unable to give if they knew the purpose of the study. At times, in direct questioning, the respondent may intentionally or unintentionally misunderstand or mislead the researcher. In these cases, projective techniques can increase the validity of responses by disguising the purpose. This is particularly true when the issues to be addressed are personal, sensitive or subject to social norms. Projective techniques are also helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs and attitudes are operating at a subconscious level. Projective techniques suffer from many of the demerits of unstructured direct techniques, but to a greater extent. These techniques generally require personal interviews with highly trained interviewers. Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the responses. Hence, they tend to be expensive. Some projective techniques, such as role playing, require respondents to engage in unusual behavior. In such cases, the researcher may assume that respondents who agree to participate are themselves unusual in some way. Therefore, they may not be representative of the population of interest. Association Techniques It is a type of technique where the respondent is presented with a stimulus and asked to react with the first thing that comes to the respondents mind Word Association A projective technique in which respondents are presented one at a time with a list of words. After each word, they are asked to give the first word that comes to mind. Completion Techniques In completion techniques, the respondent is asked to complete an incomplete stimulus situation. Common completion techniques in marketing research are sentence completion and story completion. Sentence Completion It is similar to word association. Respondents are given incomplete sentences and asked to complete them. Generally, they are asked to use the first word or phrase that comes to mind. Story Completion A projective technique in which the respondents are provided with part of a story and required to give the conclusion in their own words Construction Techniques They are closely related to completion techniques. Construction techniques require the respondent to construct a response in the form of a story, dialogue, or description. In a construction technique, the researcher provides less initial structure to the respondent than in a completion technique. The 2 main construction techniques are (1) Picture response (2) Cartoons Picture Response A projective technique in which the respondent is shown a picture and asked to tell a story describing it Cartoon Tests Cartoon characters are shown in a specific situation related to the problem. The respondents are asked to indicate the dialogue that one cartoon character might make in response to the comments of another character. Expressive Techniques In expressive techniques, respondents are presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation. The respondents express not their own feelings or attitudes, but those of others. The 2 main expressive techniques are role playing and third-person technique. Role Playing In role playing, respondents are asked to play the role or assume the behavior of someone else. The researcher assumes that the respondents will project their own feelings into the role. These can then be uncovered by analyzing the response. Third-Person Technique A projective technique in which the respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third person to the situation. This third person may be a friend, neighbor, colleague, or a typical person. INTRODUCTION History of Marketing Research Pioneers Marketing Research as an organized business activity began between 1910 and 1920. The appointment of Charles Collidge Parlin as manager of the Commercial Research Division of the Advertising Department of the Curtis Publishing Company in 1911 is generally noted to be the beginning of marketing research. Parlins success led several industrial firms and advertising media to establish research divisions. In 1915, the United States Rubber Company hired Dr. Paul H. Nystrom to manage a newly established Department of Commercial Research. In 1917, Swift and Company hired Dr. Louis D. H. Weld from Yale University to become manager of their Commercial Research Department. In 1919, Professor C.S. Duncan of the University of Chicago published Commercial Research: An Outline of Working Principles, considered to be the first major book on commercial research. In 1921, Percival Whites Market Analysis was published; the first research book to gain a large readership, it went through several editions. Market Research and Analysis by Lyndon O. Brown, published in 1937, became one of the most popular college textbooks of the period, reflecting the growing interest in marketing research on the college campus. After 1940, numerous research textbooks were published and the number of business schools offering research courses grew rapidly. Following World War II, the growth of marketing research increased dramatically. By 1948, more than two hundred Marketing Research organizations had been created in the United States. An estimated $50 million was spent on marketing research activities in 1947. Over the next three decades this expenditure level increased more than tenfold (Kinnear, 1991). Marketing Research vs. Market Research These terms often are used interchangeably, but technically there is a difference. Market research deals specifically with the gathering of information about a markets size and trends. Marketing research covers a wider range of activities. While it may involve market research, marketing research is a more general systematic process that can be applied to a variety of marketing problems. The Value of Information Information can be useful, but what determines its real value to the organization? In general, the value of information is determined by: The ability and willingness to act on the information. The accuracy of the information. The level of indecisiveness that would exist without the information. The amount of

Valentino’s Legacy

Upon walking in to the Gallery of Modern Art, tucked in around the corner from the State Library and well hidden from view, I was astounded by the sudden rush of sight and sound. Despite my sudden sense of claustraphobia, I forced myself inside. The queue to enter the Valentino Retrospective Art Exhibition was beyond massive; curving from the heart of the Gallery, along the back wall, up the side wall, and outside of the door for a good 800 metres. Satisfied with my pre-ordered tickets, I bustled along and entered the exhibition. Valentino Clemente Ludovico Garavani is more than a well-known Italian Fashion Designer: to most fashion students he is a God. Born on May 11th, 1932, this simple Saint has developed several different fashion labels throughout his 5 decades of work; such as Valentino, Valentino Roma, R.E.D. Valentino and, most popularly, Valentino Garavani. Commonly reffered to as only Valentino, he was the founder of the Valentino Spa Brand. The Valentino Retrospective: Past, Present and Future was developed by Les Arts Dà ©coratifs, Paris; and celebrates the renowned and glamorous designs of Valentino himself. This exhibition houses items from Valentino's first ever collection in 1959 up until his more recent ‘Autumn/Winter 2009-2010 collection' (designs by Valentino's appointed creative directors, Maria Grazia Chiuri and Pier Paolo Piccioli as of 2008). Upon entering, I discovered that this Exhibition was split into two major sections; each hosting different fragments of Valentino's most successful collections throughtout his career. The First section, entitled Part 1, was composed mainly of Valentino's earlier designs, with the pieces ranging from 1960 up until 2006. The Second Section, entitled Part 2, housed garments from a much more modern era. With a majority of the pieces pulled from Valentino's collections from 1992 through to 2010. European Royalty, celebrites and many other high-status folk have been seen wearing designs by Valentino, including Nicole Kidman, Elizabeth Taylor, Cate Blanchett and Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis (all of the garments worn by these women can be seen at this exhibition). I was most astounded to come across a dress worn by Julia Roberts to the Academy Awards in 1992 for her hit movie Erin Brockovitch. After viewing the best Valentino Garavani had to offer at this Brisbane Exhibition, I must admit I was fairly disappointed. All up, the exhibition housed approxiamately 100 garments, although it seemed many less to me, and 97 of which I disliked. The designs are timeless; sophisticated. The material used is of the highest quality. But still, I only found 3 dresses that I personally found mildly interesting. Although, to sum up the entire experience, there is only two pieces that could possibly describe the amount of work and timeless culture that has been woven together – despite vintage pieces, the elegant formal attire, and wedding dresses. Firstly; the commonly seen Evening Gown, Haute Couture Spring/Summer 2003, Model 130. Described at GoMA's Exhibition as â€Å"Strapless evening gown with low-set draped pale crimson chiffon sleeves, a train with appliquà © pleated crimson taffeta rosettes and red strass crystals in their centres, and pink and grey taffeta rosettes in its lining.† [Source 2] Made of Buche-Gillaud Fabric and Embroidered by Marabitti. This garment's elegance, formality, timelessness and complexity sums up the entire exhibition in one. The soft Crimson colour supports the mystery; and the flowers seem to support the multi-cultural theme. This piece was rescued from the Valentio Archives to be included in this exhibition. The second signature piece included at this Exhibition was from the Autumn/Winter 2009-2010, collection Although not designed by Valentino Garavani himself, Look 23 stays true to the Nature of Valentino. The extreme amounts of detail included in this piece definitely showcase one of Valentino most intricate pieces; a true piece of artwork. The themes in The Valentino Retrospective have a â€Å"recurrence of geometric patterns and graphic prints, the skilful use of fabric to create dramatic silhouettes and, of course, the distinctive palette of black, white and ‘Valentino red’. The future direction of this most esteemed fashion label is showcased through five creations by the house of Valentino’s new creative directors.† [Source 2] The Valentino Retrospective: Past, Present and Future is a collection of Valentino Garavani's most successful and original designs; located at the Gallery of Modern Art in Southbank, this astonishing exhibition is open to the public from the 7th of August to the 14th of November 2010. Including a lounging area, a cafe, a gift shop and a bar: This is, truly, a fusion of art, fashion and culture that one should not miss. Reference http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentino_Garavani

Sources for Rrl

Fajnzylber, Lederman and Loaysa (2002) – (Fajnzylber, P. , Lederman, D. and N. Loayza (2000). â€Å"Crime and Victimization: An Economic Perspective†, mimeo) â€Å"In fact the economics of crime interacts with different and heterogeneous fields (i. e. sociology, criminology, psychiatry and geography). It is closely related to poverty, social exclusion, wage and income inequality, cultural and family background, level of education and other economic and social factors that may affect individual’s propensity to commit crimes such as cultural characteristics, age and sex. â€Å" A spatial analysis of neighborhood crime in omaha, Nebraska using alternative measures of crime rates. By haifeng zhang and Michael p. peterson. internet journal of criminology 2007 Many researchers – (Ackerman (1998), Anselin (2000), Kershaw and Tseloni (2005), Nagle (1995), Osborn et al (1992). ) Substantial neighborhood crime research has documented that urban crime occurs most frequently in stressful and disadvantaged areas with disproportional concentration of poverty, unemployment and minority populations. The social disorganization theory argues that socio-economic stress (e. g. poverty, racial/ethnic issues, etc) undermines social control level and strikes the foundations of social cohesion, which results in occurrence of crime. The routine activity approach/theory claims that criminal activities are related to social environment and the behavior patterns of people who live in the neighborhood or community. Unfavorable environment settings (poverty, low education or li teracy and unemployment) are frequently used to evaluate the effects of crime correlates. (CRIME AND POVERTY) Fleisher (1963-1966) – (Fleisher, B. , (1966), â€Å"The Effects of Income Delinquency†, American Economic Review, 56 (1/2). Pp. 118-137) â€Å"The principal theoretical reason for believing that low income increases the tendency to commit crime is that it raises the relative cost of engaging in legitimate activity and that the probable cost of getting caught is relatively low, since they (low-income individuals) view their legitimate lifetime earnings prospects dismally they may expect to lose relatively little earning potential by acquiring criminal records, furthermore, if legitimate earnings are low, the opportunity of lifetime actually spent in delinquent activity, or in jail is also low (Fleisher 1966, p. 20)† Marc Hooghe, Bram Vanhoutte, Vim Hardyns and Tuba Bircan. Unemployment, Inequality, Poverty and Crime. Spatial Distribution Patterns of Criminal Acts in Belgium 2001-2006. British Journal of Criminology, 51 (1), pp. 1-20. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2011. A concentration of poverty, a lack of resources and various indicators for social disorganization have all been invoked to explain a concentration of crime. Pg1 Kelly (2000) – (Kelly, M. , (2000). â€Å"Inequality and Crime†. The Review of Economics and Statitics, 82 (4), pp. 30-539) â€Å"in the economics theory of crime, areas of high inequality place poor individuals who have low returns from market activity next to high-income individuals who have goods worth taking, thereby increasing the returns to time allocated to criminal activity† â€Å"strain theory argues that, when faced with the relative success of others around them, unsuccessful individuals feel frustration at their situation. The greater the inequality, the higher this strain and the greater the inducement for low0status individuals to commit crime† Machin and Meghir (2004) (Machin, Stephen and Costas Meghir. â€Å"Crime and Economic Incentives. † National Bureau of Economic Research. 9 Feb 2009 ) When there are larger numbers of people with low wage rates, the crime rate usually goes up. Handbook of crime correlates. Lee Ellis, Kevin Beaver, John Wright. Academic Press, Oxford, UK Many of the most popular theories of criminal behavior have focused on poverty as a major causal factor (Mesnner and South 1986:977) pg 36 Deteriorated neighborhood conditions in an urban area were almost always associated with higher rates of official crime. Pg 237 (CRIME AND EDUCATION) (the socioeconomic determinants of crime. A review of literature. Paolo buonanno. Univerita degli studi di Milano-bicocca. p18) Crime appears to be strictly related to the level of education attained and to individual’s economic and social background. Freeman (1991,1996), Grogger (1995,1998) and more recently Lochner and Moretti (2001) attempt to clearly identify the relationships between crime and education. – Usher (1997) (Usher, D. , (1997). â€Å"Education as Deterrent to Crime†. Canadian Journal of Economics, 30 (2), pp. 367-84. ) â€Å"Education promotes good citizenship. Education does more than teach skills to enhance one’s capacity to earn income. It perpetuates the values of society, enculturates people to serve their communities and promotes virtues of hard work and honesty. † Education may also have a â€Å"civilization effect,† tending to reduce the incidence of criminal activity. Ehrlich (1975, p. 333) (Elrich,I. , (1975). â€Å"On the Relation between Education and Crime†. In Juster, F. T. (Ed. ), Education, Income and Human Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 313-337. ) Positive relationship between the average number of school years completed by the adult population (over 25 years) and particularly property crimes committed across the U. S. in 1960 Wilson and Herrnstein (1985) (Wilson, J. Q. and R. Herrnstein (1985). Crime and Human Nature. New York: Simon and Schuster) Several studies have shown that criminals tend to be less educated and from poorer economic backgrounds than non-criminals. Lochner (1999) (Lochner, L. , (1999). Education, Work and Crime: Theory and Evidence†, Working Paper No 465, Center for Economic Research (RCER) – University of Rchester) â€Å"crime is primarily a problem among young educated men. Individuals with low skill level are more likely to participate in criminal activities because the returns they can earn from work or school are low. Both high school graduation and ability directly lower criminal propen sities† p. 34 Lochner and Moretti- (Lochner, L. and E. Moretti (2001). â€Å"The effect of education on crime: evidence from prison inmates, arrests and self-reports†, NBER Working-Paper no. 605) â€Å"Schooling increases the returns to legitimate work, raising the opportunity costs of illegal behavior. † P. 1 â€Å"Schooling significantly reduces criminal activity† p. 30 Education and Crime. Lancer Lochner. University of Western Ontario. December 13, 2007. Empirically there is a strong negative correlation between educational attainment and various measures of crime. Using OLS, Lochner and Morretti (2004) estimate that one-year increase in average education levels in a state reduces state-level arrest rates by 11 percent. pg9 Handbook of crime correlates. Lee Ellis, Kevin Beaver, John Wright. Academic Press, Oxford, UK The vast majority of studies have concluded that as an individual’s years of education increase, his or her probability of criminal behavior decreases. Two studies of the relationship between years of education and antisocial behavior both concluded that a significant negative correlation existed. Pg 36 The crime reducing effect of education. Stephen machin, Olivier marie. Suncica vujic. Institute for the Study of Labor discussion paper no. 5000. June 2010. IZA Bonn Germany Pg 2-4 There are a number of theoretical reasons why education may have an effect on crime. From the existing socio-economic literature there are (at least) three main channels through which schooling might affect criminal participation: income effects (education increases the returns to legitimate work raising the opportunity costs of illegal behavior therefore, those who can earn more are less likely to engage in crime), time availability (time spent in education may also be important in terms of limiting the time available for participating in criminal activity. The time spent at school during the year is negatively correlated to the probability of arrest that year. It was found that property crime increases significantly in areas where youths have days off school) and patience or risk aversion. For most crimes, one would expect that these factors induce a negative effect of schooling on crime. CRIME AND UNEMPLOYMENT Arvantes and Delfina 2006 High unemployment rates also provide incentives to perform all kinds of criminal acts. John P. Allison (1972) (Allison, John P. Economic Factors and the rate of Crime. † Land Economics 48 (1972): 193-96. JSTOR. 9 Feb 2009 ) Allison finds that unemployment rate is one of the biggest factors that contribute toward crime rates. Both unemployment and poverty rates have significant and positive effects on crime rate. Handbook of crime correlates. Lee Ellis, Kevin Beaver, John Wright. Academic Press, Oxford, UK Pg 107 Regarding the frequency of unemployment, numerous studies have been conducted with res pect to criminality. The majority of these studies have indicated that frequently unemployed persons are more likely to have a criminal record In Ehrlich model, individuals divide their time between legal activates and risky illegal activities. If legal income opportunites become scare relative to potential gains in crime, the model predicts that crime will become more frequent. Increased unemployment could be one such factor. Identifying the effect of unemployment and crime. Steven Raphael and Rudolf winter-ebmer. Journal of law and economics. Vol. xliv. April 2001. The university of chicago Pg 260 Declines in crime rates may be due in part to the current absence of legal employment opportunities. To the extent that increase legitimate employment opportunities deter potential offender from committing crimes, a decline in the unemployment rate such as that observed during the 1990s may be said to cause the declines in crime rate. CRIME AND LITERACY Handbook of crime correlates. Lee Ellis, Kevin Beaver, John Wright. Academic Press, Oxford, UK Pg 150 The vast majority of studies have found that individuals who receive high grades tend to be less criminal than those with low grades. The academic performance of delinquents and criminals tends to be especially poor in those subject areas requiring reading and other linguistic skills rather than in areas where the primary demands are on mathematical and scientific reasoning skills. Pg241 – 243 There is a strong evidence that academic performance as measured by grade point average was inversely associated with both official and self-reported criminality in nearly all investigations. Slow reading development was positively correlated with involvement in crime and delinquency. Theories the Criminological theories past to present. Essential Readings. Third edition. Francis T. Cullen and Robert Agnew. Roxbury Publishing Company LA California, Pg 5-8 Classical theory by Beccaria Central Thesis: Crime occur when the benefits outweigh the costs – when people pursue self-interest in the absence of effective punishments. Crime is a free-willed choice Positivist theory Crime is caused or determined by sociological factors Social Disorganization/Chicago School – Shaw an McKay, Sampson and Wilson, Raudenbush and Earls Disorganized communities cause crime because informal social controls break down and criminal cultures emerge. They lack the â€Å"collective efficacy† to fight crime and disorder. Strain/General Strain by Cohen, Cloward and Ohlin, Agnew When individuals cannot obtain success goals (e. g. , money, status in school), they experience strain or pressure. Under certain conditions, they are likely to respond to this strain through crime. The strains leading to crime, however, may not only be linked to goal blockage (or deprivation of valued stimuli0 but also to the presentation of noxious stimuli and the taking away of valued stimuli. Critical Theory by Bonger, Quinney, Currie and Colvin Inequality in material well-being creates conditions that lead to street crime and corporate crime.

Makings of a Tragic Hero - 1202 Words

A possible theme for Oedipus the King by Sophocles is that one’s blindness can hide the inevitability that is his destiny. Oedipus is in this situation. He struggles to escape his fate: killing his father and marrying his mother and believes he is successful. Sophocles believes that the gpds control one’s destiny and the inevitability that a person will do what is destined despite there hero’s intentions.Oedipus represent the standards of a true tragic hero: he is well known, basically good, his punishment is out of proportion compared to his crime, the audience at some point feels sorrow and pity for him, and Oedipus has a tragic flaw. During the whole story Oedipus thinks that he may be able to change his fate a live life how he wants but he falls to that which is his destiny.For these reason Oedipus is truly an example of a tragic hero and is unable to avoid his tragic fate. Oedipus is well known and prominent and that is important to making him a true tragic hero. A tragic hero is always in a place of power usually politically. In the beginning of the story Oedipus is the son of the queen and king of Thebes, but because of a prophecy his Father fears his child and expels him out of the kingdom. Yet through strange transactions the baby ends up becoming the prince of Corinth, but he leaves to try to escape his cruel fate. On his journey he encounters a sphinx, by solving the riddles it has for him he defeats it you freed us from the sphinx (line 44), defeating aShow MoreRelatedThe Heroes Of A Hero1082 Words   |  5 PagesChristopher Reeve once said, â€Å"A hero is an ordinary individual who finds the strength to persevere and endure in spite of overwhelming obstacles.† In today’s society, what describes a hero is different to each person you ask. In my opinion, there are three different heroes today. There are the heroes you read about i n books and watch in movies such as The Avengers and X-Men, and there are the everyday heroes such as doctors, police, and soldiers. There are also tragic heroes. Shakespeare is famousRead MoreCharacteristics Of Michael Jackson712 Words   |  3 PagesMichael Jackson a tragic hero? Well, What is a tragic hero? A tragic hero is someone who is great or virtuous character who is destined for downfall, suffering or defeat. Michael Jackson fits characteristics of a tragic hero. Many people remember him by his influence on people and music.Some of the ways he did inspire people was by doing things for children. Michael fits the characteristics as a tragic hero in many different ways with all the downfalls and positive things he has done for us todayRead MoreCreon The Tragic Hero1005 Words   |  5 PagesA tragic hero is defined in most cases as a literary character of great stature whose moral defect leads to tragedy but some self-awareness brings the character to make the right decisio n (World Literatures). That is why although Antigone portrays many characteristics of a tragic hero, the real tragic hero of this play is Creon. A tragic hero in the Greek world is very different from our perceptive of a hero in the modern world. When today’s society thinks of a hero they think of superpowers andRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s The Tragedy Of Julius Caesar919 Words   |  4 PagesWickingson HELA10, Hour 7 Mrs. Beren 8 December 2014 A hero has many attributes and characteristics that can both positively and negatively affect them. A hero can then be considered a tragic hero through the choices that eventually bring about their demise. At first glance, Caesar may appear to be the tragic hero, when the real tragedy actually lies in Brutus’s story in William Shakespeare s play The Tragedy of Julius Caesar. One tray a tragic hero must posses is that they are relatable. The play mayRead More John Proctor is a Tragic Hero in The Crucible by Arthur Miller688 Words   |  3 Pages Since the times of the ancient Greeks, tragic heroes have been used to enhance the meaning of a play or literary work. Any character cannot be described as tragic hero. Several key characteristics are necessary for the tragic hero to possess in order to be characterized as such. He must be high-ranked or have a high standing in the community. He must have a weakness or a tragic flaw and be involved in a struggle. In the end, that struggle will lead to his downfall. Arthur Miller purposely incorporatesRead MoreEssay on Shakespeares Macbeth - The Tragic Hero717 Words   |  3 PagesMacbeth - The Tragic Hero      Ã‚  Ã‚   Every true Elizabethan Tragedy comes complete with a tragic hero.   The tragedy Macbeth, written by William Shakespeare, has a perfect example of a tragic hero, otherwise known as Macbeth.   A tragic hero must be a man who is great and admirable in various ways.   He should be placed in society in such a way that everything he does affects all of the members of his society.   A tragic hero should at some point reach the top of Fortune’s Wheel, but land upRead MoreRomeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare818 Words   |  3 Pagesgiven credit for the popularizing of tragedies, causing a tragic hero to be seen as a reputable character. In Shakespeare’s story â€Å"Romeo and Juliet,† two ill-fated lovers are caught between the bitter hatred of their two families. Knowing their parents would never approve, Romeo and Juliet struggle to keep their love a secret. Though the story ends in what most people would view as a tragedy, Romeo fails to meet the characteristics of a tragic hero established by Aristotle, who first created the literaryRead MoreEssay on Oedipus: The Reign of a Tragic Hero1266 Words   |  6 Pagesto truly understand a tragic play and the history it comes with? The history behind the character of Oedipus, in the play Oedipus the King, is very complicated. His intricate past dealing with prophecies, family members, and murder is the main focus of the story. There are many characteristics that complete Aristotle’s definition of a tragic hero; these being the presence of hamartia and peripeteia, a sense of self-awareness, the audience’s pity for the character, and the hero is of noble birth. Read More The Tragic Hero: Creon or Antigone? 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A tragic hero usually brings suffering and death to other characters, even a whole country. Finally, a tragic hero goes into a situation in which there is no getting